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Parathyroid hormone

Parathyroid hormone (parathyroid hormone)  is one of the main regulators of calcium in the blood. This hormone is very useful information for: parathyroid disease (primary hyperparathyroidism, secondary hyperparathyroidism, autoimmune hypoparathyroidism), osteoporosis, calcium content disorders (hypercalcaemia, hypocalcaemia). Parathyroid  hormone is a protein that is synthesized in the parathyroid glands. It main function is to regulate calcium metabolism in the body.  When the level of calcium in the blood falls, the parathyroid hormone increases to raise the calcium concentration in the blood by sending signals to the bone to: 1. inhibit collagen synthesis in active osteoblasts;  2. activate osteolysis by osteocytes;  3. increase osteolysis by the osteoclasts; 4. increase in the rate of maturation of progenitor cells, differentiating into osteoblasts and osteoclasts. As a result, the calcium level in the blood rises.  However, one of...
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Acute Arterial Obstruction

This is defined as sudden cessation of blood flow in the main artery as a result of thrombosis, embolism, spasm, injury etc… Causes of thrombosis ( Virchow triad: §   the predominance of the coagulation system §   damage to the vascular wall §   Turbulent blood flow ( Diseases leading to thrombosis: §   Atherosclerosis. §   Occlusive disease. §   Nonspecific aorto-arteritis. Embologenic disease - the state of the body leading to the occurrence of embolism  ®   Cardiac (95%): ®   CHD (50%) - myocardial infarction, rhythm abnormalities (atrial fibrillation, arrhythmia et al.), Heart aneurysm. ®   Heart disease (40%). ®   Myocarditis, endocarditis, pneumonia (5%) ®   Noncardia (5%) - vascular aneurysm. Pathogenesis of acute ischemia ®   Closing of the main artery. ®   Peripheral arterial spasm. ®   Blood stasis. ®   Continued thrombosis - upward and downw...
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Diverticular disease

General understanding Diverticular disease (diverticulosis) of the  colon represents morpho-functional pathological process,  characteristic feature of which is the presence of saccular protrusions of the colon wall (Diverticula) Diverticular disease - a disease characterized by clinical manifestations of varying degrees of severity due to the presence of a diverticulum or diverticulosis, including inflammation (diverticulitis) and its complications (peridiverticulitis, abscess, perforation, fistula, peritonitis) Diverticulum  - a protrusion of the colon wall. True diverticulum contain all layers of the colon wall. False diverticulum (pseudodiverticulum) represent the protrusion of mucous membrane through gaps in the muscular layer of the colon. Example of true diverticulum is the congenital diverticulum (Meckel's diverticulum), and the false diverticulum are the acquired diverticulum of the colon. Diverticulosis  - presence of multiple...
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Colon cancer

Colon cancer  is a malignant neoplasm of the large intestine that comes from the epithelial tissue (most often account is  adenocarcinoma). Colon cancer is usually present with the presence of blood in the stool or with complaints of gastrointestinal symptoms. The screening method of examination of the colon is the determine traces of blood in the faeces. Colon cancers is often diagnosed with the help of a colonoscopy and biopsy. The most effective method for treatment of colon cancers is surgery.  Chemotherapy is used after surgery in the presence of metastasis in the lymph nodes. Epidemiology of the colon About  3-5% of world population is diagnosed of colorectal cancer (CRC) during their life time. According to the World Health Organization, 940,000 people fall ill every year and 500,000 of them die from colon cancer.  Statistics show that me n get cancer of the rectum 1.5 times more often than women. In screening for colon cancer of the ...
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Pulmonary Thromboembolism

Definition Aetiology Pathogenesis Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Prevention Epidemiology §   The third leading cause of death in the US §   Every year about 600000 patients are admitted with PE  ( 30% with mortality!) §    60% of patients who died in hospitals, show signs of thromboembolic disease §    5 out of 1000 patients who died after large operations, their cause of death was PE In Russia •        about 240 000 cases of venous thrombosis is reported every year •        PE has affected more than 100 000 people Risk factors •        Prolonged bed rest; •        The postoperative period; •        Heart failure; •        Obesity; •        Malignant tumors of internal organs ; •   ...
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Biochem & Blood analyses

A general blood test  involves a study that allows you to identify the number of  leukocytes , red blood cells , platelets and haematocrit  . In addition, the analysis allows to determine  haemoglobin  and erythrocyte indices (MCV, MCH, MCHC, RDV).  The general analysis of blood is carried out, first of all, for an estimation of the general system of a hemopoiesis, inflammatory processes, the maintenance of a haemoglobin and diagnostics of anaemias. A clinical blood test  ,  part of which is a general blood test, is the most commonly used method in clinical laboratory diagnostics. Specialists distinguish three basic components of the clinical blood test, namely: general analysis, leukocyte formula and calculation of ESR. All these studies make it possible to determine parameters such as erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), haemoglobin content, white blood cell count, colour index, count th...
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Instrumental diagnosis

Laboratory and instrumental methods of diagnosis of PE Pulmonary embolism is diagnosed using varieties of techniques such as chest X-ray, blood gas analysis and an electrocardiogram, D-dimer, echocardiography, spiral computed tomography, contrast-enhanced (CT angiography) of the chest, ventilation-perfusion lung scintigraphy, angiography, and other methods of diagnosis of thrombosis of deep lower limbs (ultrasound, CT venography).   Electrocardiography (ECG)  is most widely used method of investigation for PE. The ECG investigation shows the present of arrhythmias, conduction disorders , voltage and complex ventricular repolarization process, signs of overload of the right heart. Acute pulmonary embolism leads to the sudden appearance of pulmonary hypertension and development of acute pulmonary heart disease . The following signs have been shown on ECG in patients with pulmonary embolism:  Q  III  -S  I  (QR  III  -RS ...
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